How are the ex-Yugoslav members of the Alliance doing in the modernisation processes?
The ex-Yugoslav countries, which took different paths after the break-up of the federation in 1991, are at different stages of military modernisation today. While Slovenia and Croatia are firmly part of NATO and are actively transitioning to Alliance standards, Serbia maintains military neutrality and relies primarily on Russian and Chinese equipment.
Yugoslavia was established after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. After the Second World War, it was transformed into a socialist federation under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, governed by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. Although it was a socialist state, Yugoslavia did not become part of the Warsaw Pact after the break with Stalin in 1948. Instead, it chose the path of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. This meant that it maintained its relations with both the West and the East, which was reflected in the military sphere.
Yugoslav military doctrine and weapons
The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) was built as a strong and autonomous military force that sought to combine Soviet technology with its own research and production. Among the most important projects were the M-84 tank, which was the Yugoslav version of the Soviet T-72, the J-22 Orao trainer aircraft, the G-4 Super Galeb, and the LRSV Plamen and Oganj missile systems. Yugoslavia's military doctrine was based on the concept of "total defence", which assumed the involvement of the entire population in the defence of the state in the event of an attack. Between 1991 and 1999, bloody conflicts took place in the Balkans, which caused widespread destruction of military infrastructure and greatly influenced the future military direction of the successor states. Each of the newly formed ones faced its own challenges in building up its military and deciding between a Westward or Eastward orientation.
Slovenia
The Slovenian army consists of approximately 7 250 active soldiers and another 1 200 reservists. The ground forces consist of two brigades (1st and 72nd), supported by a logistics brigade. Artillery support and air defence units are an integral part of the two 'frontline' brigades. The armament of the mechanised infantry includes modern armoured personnel carriers Patria AMV (30 units + 106 as planned acquisition), Valuk/Pandur I (65 units) and light armoured vehicles L-ATV (161 units). The Slovenian tank force consists of 57 M-84 MBTs. Artillery support is provided by Israeli Soltam M-71 howitzers (18 pieces) and Soltam K6 heavy mortars (50 pieces). They will be joined prospectively by an as yet unknown number of French Caesar self-propelled howitzers. The air force is limited and focuses on transport and reconnaissance tasks. Slovenia lacks a fighter air force, but boasts PILATUS PC-9 trainers (9 units). One L-410 Turbojet and one (two in the future) Alenia C-27J Spartan are used for transport. The helicopter air force consists of multirole Bell 412s (8 pieces), which will be reinforced by six Italian AgustaWestland AW139s in the future. In the future, Slovenia also plans to expand its air defence, considering the purchase of two IRTIS-T SLM systems. The Slovenian navy has only two patrol vessels, the VNL-11 Triglav and the HPL-21 Ankaran. The first mentioned vessel has a domestically produced reconnaissance UAV of the Galeba type. The ground troops use the Bramor C4EYE drone for reconnaissance and surveillance.
Croatia
The Croatian Armed Forces consist of approximately 15 200 active soldiers and around 18 350 reservists. The ground forces consist of the Garda Armoured Mechanised Brigade and the Garda Motorised Brigade, which are supported by artillery, logistics and engineer units. The mechanised infantry is armed with modern Patria CRO armoured personnel carriers (126 units) and M-80A infantry fighting vehicles, which will soon be replaced by up to 89 M2A2 ODS infantry fighting vehicles. The tank force relies on M-84A4 main battle tanks (15 units), with the expected purchase of 50 German Leopard 2A8 tanks. Artillery support is provided by 2S1 Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers (8 units) and PzH 2000 (12 units). Plans are underway to purchase additional units of the aforementioned German howitzers as well as French CAESARs. In addition to self-propelled howitzers, the Croatian army also has towed guns such as the D-30 RH M94 (20 pieces), but some pieces have been delivered to Ukraine. The army also has M-92 Vulkan and APR-40 rocket launchers (Romanian version of Soviet Grads).
As part of the modernisation, Croatia plans to purchase more self-propelled howitzers and modern anti-tank weapons such as the US HIMARS (8 pieces). Croatia operates Israeli Orbiter 3 UAVs (6 pieces), Skylark I (7 pieces) and US RQ-20 Puma (7 pieces) for reconnaissance and intelligence operations. As part of the further development of unmanned assets, the Turkish Bayraktar TB2 drones (6 units) are being acquired. The air force has MiG-21 fighter aircraft (4 units), but these will be replaced by modern Dassault Rafale (12 units), purchased from France. The helicopter force includes UH-60M (4 units, with plans to expand to 8 units), Mi-171Sh multirole (10 units). Croatia plans to modernize its air defense by purchasing four batteries of medium-range systems by 2028. The options under consideration include the French MICA VL NG system, the Norwegian NASAMS 3, and the German IRIS-T SLM. The Croatian navy is smaller but relatively modern. The main force consists of Kralj class corvettes (2 pieces), several patrol boats and landing craft.
Northern Macedonia
The North Macedonian army has approximately 8000 active soldiers and 4850 reservists. The ground forces consist of a single infantry brigade, which includes mechanised and light infantry units, reconnaissance detachments and support elements, including artillery and air defence. The mechanised infantry armament includes BTR-70 armoured personnel carriers (57 units), BTR-80 (12 units), M-113 (27 units), MT-LB (10 units), Leonidas (9 units), TM-170 (84 units) and, in the future, Stryker (42 units). The MBTs have been retired and the Army currently has no tank troops. The North Macedonian artillery includes a total of 126 pieces of artillery equipment. The towed howitzers include 14 pieces of 105mm M-56 and 56 pieces of 122mm M-30/M-1938 howitzers. The army also has 17 pieces of rocket launchers, including 6 pieces of 122mm BM-21 Grad and 11 pieces of 128mm M-63 Flame systems.
The mortar armament includes 39 mortars of 120 mm calibre. The air force is limited, with helicopter forces including Mi-8/Mi-17 transport and multirole helicopters (4/2 units), Mi-24 attack helicopters (2 units), Bell 205/206 (2/4 units) and, in the near future, the Italian AW149/169 (4/4 units). North Macedonia does not have a fighter air force and relies on NATO forces to protect its airspace as part of its alliance commitments. Further upgrading of the air defence force with French Mistral B-3s is planned for the future and should be delivered this year. Currently, the North Macedonian army has to rely on 9K38 Igla, 9K32 Strela-2, 9K35 Strela-10.
Montenegro
The Montenegrin army is one of the smallest in Europe, with approximately 2,400 active soldiers and around 1,000 reservists. The ground forces consist of one battalion. The infantry is armed with L-ATV light armoured vehicles (57 units). The Montenegrin tank force was disbanded after the break-up of Yugoslavia and the country currently has no main battle tanks. Artillery equipment includes 135 pieces of various artillery systems. The towed howitzers include 12 122mm D-30 howitzers. In addition, the army has 18 pieces of M-63/M-94 Flame rocket launchers of 128mm calibre. The mortar armament includes 43 mortars of 60 mm calibre (M57), 14 mortars of 82 mm calibre (M69) and 32 mortars of 120 mm calibre (M74/M75). Montenegro does not have any modern medium or long-range air defence systems. The Montenegrin navy, due to the short coastline and geographical conditions, has only a few patrol boats, the most important of which are two Konchar-class units.
Despite their shared past in Yugoslavia, the ex-Yugoslav countries have taken different paths in military modernization. Slovenia and Croatia are actively strengthening their armies to NATO standards, investing in modern equipment and engaging in Alliance missions. Northern Macedonia, as the newest NATO member, is trying to adapt its army to Western standards, while Montenegro, although a member of the Alliance, has only limited military capabilities. In contrast, Serbia maintains military neutrality and continues to rely on Russian and Chinese equipment. The dynamics of military modernisation in these states reflect not only their geopolitical orientation but also their economic capabilities and historical experience.
